Wikipedia+page

Evidence supporting problem-based learning Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn cite several studies supporting the success of the constructivist problem-based and inquiry learning methods. For example, they describe a project called GenScope, an inquiry-based science software application. Students using the GenScope software showed significant gains over the control groups, with the largest gains shown in students from basic courses.[2] Hmelo-Silver et al. also cite a large study by Geier on the effectiveness of inquiry-based science for middle school students, as demonstrated by their performance on high-stakes standardized tests. The improvement was 14% for the first cohort of students and 13% for the second cohort. This study also found that inquiry-based teaching methods greatly reduced the achievement gap for African-American students.[2] A systematic review of the effects of problem-based learning in medical school on the performance of doctors after graduation showed clear positive effects on physician competence. This effect was especially strong for social and cognitive competencies such as coping with uncertainty and communication skills.[3]

edit] Examples of applying Problem-Based Learning pedagogy to curriculum
Republic Polytechnic (RP) is attempting to implement problem-based learning to all its courses in various fields - applied science, technology for the arts, engineering, sports, health and leisure, infocomm technology, hospitality, and communication. Since inception in 2002, the polytechnic in Singapore has adopted the pedagogy and customized it to support learning in a One-Day One-ProblemTM framework. Students in a class of not more than 25 are presented a problem likely to happen in a real scenario. A facilitator guides the students through three meetings throughout the day and helps with discussions and generating problem-solving skills. In the third meeting, students team up in groups of five, present their findings and suggest ways to solve the problem. The facilitator explains the 'ideal' solution after the students have all presented and students are encouraged to raise their opinions. Students are graded daily in this continuous assessment system. Three understanding tests are conducted in one semester.[//citation needed//] In Malaysia, an attempt is being made to introduce a hybrid of problem-based learning in secondary mathematics called PBL4C, which stands for problem-based learning the four core areas in the mathematics education framework. These core areas are mathematics contents, thinking processes, skills, & values, with the student as the focus of learning. This hybrid first sprouted in SEAMEO RECSAM in 2008.[//citation needed//] Several medical schools have incorporated problem-based learning into their curricula, using real patient cases to teach students how to think like a clinician. More than eighty percent of medical schools in the United States now have some form of problem-based learning in their programs. [4]

edit] Constructivism and PBL
From a constructivist perspective Problem-based learning (PBL), the role of the instructor is to guide the learning process rather than provide knowledge (Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006). From this perspective, feedback and reflection on the learning process and group dynamics are essential components of PBL.

edit] Problem-based learning and cognitive load
Sweller and others have published a series of studies over the past twenty years that is relevant to problem-based learning but concerning cognitive load and what they describe as the guidance-fading effect (Sweller, 2006). Sweller, et al. conducted several classroom-based studies with students studying algebra problems (Sweller, 1988). These studies have shown that active problem solving early in the learning process, is a less effective instructional strategy than studying worked examples (Sweller and Cooper, 1985; Cooper and Sweller, 1987). Certainly active problem solving is useful as learners become more competent, and better able to deal with their working memory limitations. But early in the learning process, learners may find it difficult to process a large amount of information in a short amount of time. Thus the rigors of active problem solving may become an issue for novices. Once learners gain expertise the scaffolding inherent in problem-based learning helps learners avoid these issues. Sweller (1988) proposed cognitive load theory to explain how novices react to problem solving during the early stages of learning. Sweller, et al. suggests a worked example early, and then a gradual introduction of problems to be solved. They propose other forms of learning early in the learning process (worked example, goal free problems, etc.); to later be replaced by completions problems, with the eventual goal of solving problems on their own (Sweller, Van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). This problem based learning becomes very useful later in the learning process. Many forms of scaffolding have been implemented in problem based learning to reduce the cognitive load of learners. These are most useful to fade guidance during problem solving. As an example, consider the [|fading effect] helps learners to slowly transit from studying examples to solving problems. In this case backwards fading was found to be quite effective.

Problem-based learning is widely used in many medical universities world wide. It serves as a student-centered instructional strategy in which students collaboratively solve problems and reflect on their experiences. Characteristics of PBL are: Learning is driven by challenging, open-ended problems; Students work in small collaborative groups; Teachers take on the role as "facilitators" of learning.[5]

edit] Cognitive effects of problem-based learning
The acquisition and structuring of knowledge in PBL is thought to work through the following cognitive effects (Schmidt, 1993):
 * initial analysis of the problem and activation of prior knowledge through small-group discussion
 * elaboration on prior knowledge and active processing of new information
 * restructuring of knowledge, construction of a semantic network
 * social knowledge construction
 * learning in context
 * stimulation of curiosity related to presentation of a relevant problem

edit] References

 * 1) **^** [|, Queen Mary, University of London. Materials department (SEMS)]
 * 2) ^ //**a**// //**b**// [|Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)] Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn. (2007). //Educational Psychologist, 42//(2), 99–107
 * 3) **^** [|Koh, Khoo, Wong, & Koh], The effects of problem-based learning during medical school on physician competency: a systematic review, 2008, CMAJ 178(1)
 * 4) **^** []
 * 5) **^** Srikumar Chakravarthi, Nagaraja Haleagrahara. Implementation of PBL Curriculum Involving Multiple Disciplines in Undergraduate Medical Education Programme. International Education Studies, 2010, 3 (1): 165-169. (ISSN: 1913-9039)
 * Armstrong E: A hybrid model of problem-based learning. In: Boud D and Feletti G (editors): The challenge of problem-based learning, 137-149. London, Kogan Page, 1991
 * Barr RD and Tagg J: From teaching to learning - a new paradigm for undergraduate education. Change, Nov/Dec.1995:13-25 (also available online at [] )
 * Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235-266.
 * Hmelo-Silver, C. E. & Barrows, H. S. (2006). Goals and strategies of a problem-based learning facilitator. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1. 21-39.
 * [|Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., and Clark, R. E. (2006) Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist 41 (2) 75-86]
 * Merrill, M.D. (2002). "A pebble-in-the-pond model for instructional design". //Performance Improvement// **41** (7): 39–44. doi:[|10.1002/pfi.4140410709].  available at []
 * Schmidt HG: Foundations of problem-based learning: some explanatory notes. Medical Education 27:422-432, 1993
 * Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning". //Cognitive Science// **12** (2): 257–285. doi:[|10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7].
 * Sweller, J. (2006). "The worked example effect and human cognition". //Learning and Instruction// **16** (2): 165–169. doi:[|10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.02.005].
 * Sweller, J., Van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). "Cognitive architecture and instructional design". //Educational Psychology Review// **10**: 251–296. doi:[|10.1023/A:1022193728205].

edit] External links

 * [|PBL at Queen Mary, University of London, Materials Department (SEMS)]
 * [|An introduction to PBL, resources, criticism, links]
 * [|PBL materials collection]
 * [|PBL Directory]
 * [|PBL at Maastricht University]
 * [|Interdisciplinary Journal of PBL] at Purdue
 * [|Penn State's PBL Site]
 * [|West Virginia School of Osteopathic Medicine's PBL site]
 * [|Problem Based Learning for College Physics (CCDMD)]

edit] See also

 * project-based learning
 * Educational psychology
 * Inquiry-based learning
 * Learning by teaching (LdL)
 * Active learning
 * Collaborative learning
 * Minnesota State University, Mankato Masters Degree in Experiential Education